Petroforms, also known as boulder outlines or boulder mosaics, are human-made shapes and patterns made by lining up large rocks on the open ground, often on quite level areas. Petroforms in North America were originally made by Indigenous Peoples, who used various terms to describe them. Petroforms can also include a rock cairn A cairn is a human-made pile of stones, often in conical form. They are usually found in uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops, or near waterways or inukshuk An inuksuk (from the Inuktitut: ᐃᓄᒃᓱᒃ, plural ᐃᓄᒃᓱᐃᑦ; alternatively inukshuk in English or inukhuk in Inuinnaqtun) is a stone landmark or cairn built by humans, used by the Inuit, Inupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America. These structures are found from Alaska to Greenland. This, an upright monolith A monolith is a geological feature such as a mountain, consisting of a single massive stone or rock, or a single piece of rock placed as, or within, a monument. Erosion usually exposes the geological formations, which are most often made of very hard and solid metamorphic or igneous rock slab, a medicine wheel Medicine wheels, or sacred hoops, were constructed by laying stones in a particular pattern on the ground. Most medicine wheels follow the basic pattern of having a center of stone, and surrounding that is an outer ring of stones with "spokes", or lines of rocks radiating from the center. Some ancient types of sacred architecture were, a fire pit Fire pits have been in existence for a very long time and despite many technological advancements since the advent of man's use of fire, they have remained a popular item because of their versatility. A fire pit can physically vary from a pit dug into the ground to an elaborate gas burning compilation of stone, brick, and metal. The common feature, a desert kite, sculpted boulders, or simply rocks lined up or stacked for various reasons. Old World petroforms include the Carnac stones The Carnac stones are an exceptionally dense collection of megalithic sites around the French village of Carnac, in Brittany, consisting of alignments, dolmens, tumuli and single menhirs. The more than 3,000 prehistoric standing stones were hewn from local rock and erected by the pre-Celtic people of Brittany, and are the largest such collection and many other megalithic monuments.[1]

Contents

Definition

Petroforms are shapes and geometrical patterns made from arranging large rocks and boulders, often over large areas of open ground, unlike the smaller petroglyphs Petroglyphs are pictogram and logogram images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions of the technique to refer to such images. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are often ( and graphs which are inscribed on rock surfaces. They were originally made in North America by native peoples for astronomical, religious, sacred, healing, mnemonic A mnemonic device is a mind memory and/or learning aid. Commonly, mnemonics are verbal—such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something—but may be visual, kinesthetic or auditory. Mnemonics rely on associations between easy-to-remember constructs which can be related back to the data that is to be remembered devices, and teaching purposes. The specific names of these rock formations and the uses varied by political and religious group. Presently, some of these sites are still being used by First Nations, elders, and others.

History

Some of the North American petroform shapes are over 2,500 years old. It is difficult to date all of them accurately because of a lack of soil deposits in some areas. There are claims that some petroforms are up to 8,000 years old. Like the petroglyphs Petroglyphs are pictogram and logogram images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions of the technique to refer to such images. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are often (, many petroforms have complex and lengthy teachings that have been passed down orally by the Ojibway The Ojibwe or Chippewa (also Chippeway) are among the largest groups of Native Americans-First Nations north of Mexico. They are the third-largest in the United States, surpassed only by Cherokee and Navajo. They are equally divided between the United States and Canada. Because they were formerly located mainly around Sault Ste. Marie, at the, other First Nations First Nations is a term of ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The total population is nearly 700,000 people. Under the, and the Midewiwin The Midewiwin or the Grand Medicine Society is a secretive religion of the aboriginal groups of the Maritimes, New England and Great Lakes regions in North America. Its practitioners are called Midew and the practices of Midewiwin referred to as Mide. Occasionally, male Midew are called Midewinini, which sometimes is translated into English as (Grand Medicine Society). Some teachings may have been lost, along with the peoples that originally made some of the oldest petroforms in North America. In some North American States and Provinces, there are laws to protect these important archaeological and historical sites. Vandalism has occurred in the past, and careful protection of these interesting sites is needed. Perhaps some native elders have decided to keep these areas hidden or secret to avoid the possible destruction or altering of sacred sites and memories. One can learn far more about these ancient peoples when there is greater respect given to the ancient ways and artifacts left behind so long ago. Ancient civilizations thrived in North and South America, with grand architecture, math, geometry, trading networks, trails, canoes, governing structures, astronomy, symbol making, scrolls, mounds, and more. All of this occurred long before the arrival of Europeans in the 1500s and 1600s. There were very few studies or specific mention of Manitoba petroform sites until the 1900s. The first detailed studies and descriptions of some sites in Manitoba According to the 2006 Census, the largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English Canadian , but there is a significant Franco-Manitoban minority (148,370) and a growing aboriginal population (192,865, including the Métis). Other important ethnic groups include Germans (216,755 - the second-largest group), Scots (209,170), and the Irish (155,915) were done by Dr. J Steinbring and R. Sutton after the 1950s.

The first stone phase at Stonehenge Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 3.2 kilometres west of Amesbury and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. It is at the centre of the most dense complex has been dated to about 2600 BCE. Stone circles are still being made in Wales as part of the Eisteddfod An eisteddfod (Welsh: [əˈstɛðvɔd]; plural eisteddfodau [ə(i)stɛðˈvɔdaɨ]) is a Welsh festival of literature, music and performance. The tradition of such a meeting of Welsh artists dates back to at least the 12th century, when a festival of poetry and music was held by Rhys ap Gruffydd of Deheubarth at his court in Cardigan in 1176 but, movement, which incorporates this among other elements from the Druidic revival A druid was a member of the priestly class in Gaul and possibly other parts of Celtic western Europe during the Iron Age. Following the invasion of Gaul by the Roman Empire, the druids were suppressed by the Roman government from the 1st century CE and disappeared from the written record by the 2nd century, although there may have been later. Desert kites were used by 5000 BCE; they fell out of use in the Neolithic as prey populations declined and the human population rose.

Presently, many Ojibway The Ojibwe or Chippewa (also Chippeway) are among the largest groups of Native Americans-First Nations north of Mexico. They are the third-largest in the United States, surpassed only by Cherokee and Navajo. They are equally divided between the United States and Canada. Because they were formerly located mainly around Sault Ste. Marie, at the or Anishinaabe Anishinaabe or Anishinabe—or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek, which is the plural form of the word—is the autonym often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonkin peoples. They all speak closely related Anishinaabemowin/Anishinaabe languages, of the Algonquian-language family ceremonies in North America involve the making of turtle shaped fire pits for sacred fires. In some instances, rocks are aligned near the entrance and fire of sweat lodge The sweat lodge is a ceremonial sauna and is an important event in some North American First Nations or Native American cultures. There are several styles of sweat lodges that include a domed or oblong hut similar to a wickiup, or even a simple hole dug into the ground and covered with planks or tree trunks. Stones are typically heated in an ceremonies that symbolize the Moon, the Sun and other things. Rock piles are still made to mark trails and important locations. A large turtle petroform of piled up boulders was recently made in the Whiteshell Park area of Manitoba.

Designs and Purposes

In some cases, petroforms were made by non-literate cultures who have left no written record of whatever reasons led them to construct these forms. Oral history was passed along by many native groups, and a few groups had very complex symbolic writings on rock, petroglyphs Petroglyphs are pictogram and logogram images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions of the technique to refer to such images. Petroglyphs are found world-wide, and are often (, birch bark scrolls Wiigwaasabak are birch bark scrolls, on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people of North America wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes. When used specifically for Midewiwin ceremonial use, these scrolls are called mide-wiigwaas. These writings enabled the memorization of complex ideas, and passing along history and stories to succeeding, and other media.

Astronomical Markers

Some petroforms were used as astronomical calendars, with rocks aligned to solstice and equinox sunrises and sunsets. They are often found in higher areas, on hills, mounds A mound is a general term for an artificial heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. The most common use is in reference to natural earthen formation such as hills and mountains, particularly if they appear artificial. The term may also be applied to any rounded area of topographically higher elevation on any surface. Artificial, ridges, and natural rock formations. Higher ground allowed humans to carefully observe the horizon The horizon is the apparent line that separates earth from sky, the line that divides all visible directions into two categories: those that intersect the Earth's surface, and those that do not. At many locations, the true horizon is obscured by trees, buildings, mountains, etc., and the resulting intersection of earth and sky is called the to mark and measure astronomical events. Some rock alignments point out four or more directions, lunar events, the rising and setting of planets, some stars, and other astronomical events. Some petroforms can also be used in more complex ways for astronomical predictions, mapping of the sky and ground, and for complex ceremonies that help to memorize many oral stories and songs. Petroforms are similar in some ways to medicine wheels which are also aligned with sunrises and sunsets, equinoxes An equinox occurs twice a year, when the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither away from nor towards the Sun, the centre of the Sun being in the same plane as the Earth's equator. The term equinox can also be used in a broader sense, meaning the date when such a passage happens. The name "equinox" is derived from the Latin aequus, solstices A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun's apparent position in the sky reaches its northernmost or southernmost extremes. The name is derived from the Latin sol and sistere (to stand still), because at the solstices, the Sun stands still in declination; that is, the apparent movement of the Sun's path north or, lunar events, and star patterns. Petroforms also mirrored the night sky, and the patterns of the stars, similar to astrological signs and symbols. The Sioux Assiniboine, Stoney , and other Siouan peoples have oral stories of the serpent in the sky, a turtle, a bear, and other patterns seen in the stars. What is often known today as Orion's belt Orion, often referred to as "The Hunter," is a prominent constellation – one of the largest, most conspicuous, and most recognizable in the night sky. Its name refers to Orion, a hunter in Greek mythology. Orion's brilliant stars are found on the celestial equator and are visible throughout the world was one prominent, bright star formation, along with the central and stationary north star, now named as Polaris Polaris (α UMi / α Ursae Minoris / Alpha Ursae Minoris, commonly North Star or Pole Star, or Dhruva Tara and sometimes Lodestar) is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor. It is very close to the north celestial pole, making it the current northern pole star. What is now known as the planet Venus is the very bright morning and evening star that is very noticeable and at times is the first and last to appear. Petroform sites in North America can be found in Manitoba According to the 2006 Census, the largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English Canadian , but there is a significant Franco-Manitoban minority (148,370) and a growing aboriginal population (192,865, including the Métis). Other important ethnic groups include Germans (216,755 - the second-largest group), Scots (209,170), and the Irish (155,915), Saskatchewan Other major cities, in order of size, are Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current and North Battleford. The province's name comes from the Saskatchewan River, whose name comes from its Cree designation: ᑭᓯᐢᑳᒋᐘᓂ ᓯᐱᐩ , meaning "swift flowing river", Alberta Alberta is located in western Canada, bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U.S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to border only a single U.S. state . It is also one of only two Canadian, Wisconsin The word Wisconsin has its origins in the name given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian speaking American Indian groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River and record its name, arriving in 1673 and calling the river Meskousing in, Minnesota Nearly sixty percent of Minnesota's residents live in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan area known as the "Twin Cities", the center of transportation, business and industry, education and home to an internationally known arts community. The remainder of the state consists of western prairies now given over to intensive agriculture;, Wyoming As specified in the designating legislation for the Territory of Wyoming, Wyoming's borders are lines of latitude, 41°N and 45°N, and longitude, 104°3'W and 111°3'W , making the shape of the state a latitude-longitude quadrangle. Wyoming is one of only three states (along with Colorado and Utah) to have borders along only straight latitudinal, Montana Montana has several nicknames, none official, including: "The Treasure State" and "Big Sky Country," and slogans that include "Land of the Shining Mountains," and more recently, "The Last Best Place." The state ranks fourth in area, but 44th in population, and therefore has the third lowest population, along the Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. About 2,320 miles long, the river originates at Lake Itasca, Minnesota and flows slowly southwards in sweeping meanders, terminating 95 river miles below New Orleans, Louisiana where it begins to flow to the Gulf of Mexico. Along with its major tributary, the Missouri River, the, the Missouri River The Missouri River is the longest river in the United States of America and is a tributary of the Mississippi River. The Missouri likely originates at Brower's Spring at the upper reaches of the Jefferson River, before joining the confluence of the Madison, Jefferson, and Gallatin rivers in Montana. From this point, it flows through its valley, and elsewhere. It has been suggested that megalithic monuments including Stonehenge Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 3.2 kilometres west of Amesbury and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. It is at the centre of the most dense complex may have incorporated important astronomical alignments.

Hunting Aids

The desert kites of Syria, Jordan, and the Negev — long lines of stones — are interpreted as aids to hunting large game animals like gazelles, ibexes, wild asses. There are similar structures on most continents.[2][3][4]

Navigation aids

The inuksuit An inuksuk (from the Inuktitut: ᐃᓄᒃᓱᒃ, plural ᐃᓄᒃᓱᐃᑦ; alternatively inukshuk in English or inukhuk in Inuinnaqtun) is a stone landmark or cairn built by humans, used by the Inuit, Inupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America. These structures are found from Alaska to Greenland. This of the Arctic act as navigation aids, an aid for hunting, or to mark important locations. Some petroforms are located along portage routes and canoe routes as well. Human made markers can be easier to remember than less unique natural features of the landscape.

Burial Sites

The Dolmens A dolmen—also known as a portal tomb, portal grave, cromlech , anta (Portuguese), Hünengrab/Hünenbett (German), Hunebed (Dutch), dyss (Swedish), goindol (Korean) or quoit—is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone (table). Most date from the widespread in Europe and much of Asia are interpreted as Neolithic burial chambers.

Mnemonic Device

Indigenous peoples have an oral tradition of story telling. Many of these rock shapes are used to memorize and to help tell stories and legends. Some petroforms go in the order of the story, helping one to memorize the successive steps.

Other Rituals and Unknown Purposes

Aboriginal Indigenous peoples are people, communities, and nations who claim a historical continuity and cultural affinity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies which sprung up on their original territories, and therefore consider themselves distinct from societies of the majority culture/s that have contested their cultural sovereignty and self- groups also made shapes of humans, snakes, turtles, fish, bears, cougars, thunderbirds The Thunderbird is a legendary creature in North American indigenous peoples' history and culture. It's considered a "supernatural" bird of power and strength. It is especially important, and richly depicted, in the art, songs and oral histories of many Pacific Northwest Coast cultures, but is also found in various forms among the, medicine wheels, circles, rectangles, and other complex geometric shapes that are still intact today. The Nazca Lines The Nazca Lines are a series of geoglyphs located in the Nazca Desert, a high arid plateau that stretches more than 80 kilometres between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana in Peru. Although some local geoglyphs resemble Paracas motifs, these are largely believed to have been created by the Nazca culture between 200 BCE and 700 include many animal and other shapes. Petroforms in North America are often related to earthen mounds A mound is a general term for an artificial heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. The most common use is in reference to natural earthen formation such as hills and mountains, particularly if they appear artificial. The term may also be applied to any rounded area of topographically higher elevation on any surface. Artificial. Mounds were sometimes built over the older petroforms, or later made near them. Petroforms also marked out the area for various ceremonies, sweatlodges The sweat lodge is a ceremonial sauna and an important ritual used by some North American First Nations or Native American peoples. There are several styles of sweat lodges that include a domed or oblong hut similar to a wickiup, or even a simple hole dug into the ground and covered with planks or tree trunks. Stones are typically heated in an, fasting Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. A fast may be total or partial concerning that from which one fasts, and may be prolonged or intermittent as to the period of fasting. Fasting practices may preclude sexual activity as well as food, in addition to refraining from, and sacred fires. They often mark an important or sacred area, or point to an important place. Offerings and prayers are made in these areas, along with initiations and vision quests. The exact, orgiginal purposes of the Carnac stones The Carnac stones are an exceptionally dense collection of megalithic sites around the French village of Carnac, in Brittany, consisting of alignments, dolmens, tumuli and single menhirs. The more than 3,000 prehistoric standing stones were hewn from local rock and erected by the pre-Celtic people of Brittany, and are the largest such collection, Stonehenge Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 3.2 kilometres west of Amesbury and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. It is at the centre of the most dense complex, and many other megalithic monuments are lost.

Conservation and protection

Many petroform sites are important archaeological Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of past human societies, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data which they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes. Due to the fact that archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be areas that need to be protected from vandals and misuse. In the past, many petroform sites have been disrespected and even destroyed Avebury is the site of an ancient monument consisting of a large henge, several stone circles, stone avenues and barrows, surrounding the village of Avebury in the English county of Wiltshire. It is one of the finest and largest Neolithic monuments in Europe, about 5,000 years old. Although older than the megalithic stages of Stonehenge 32. More education is needed to ensure that petroforms are not neglected or damaged by excessive numbers of visitors to these sites. In some cases, sacred, intact, remote sites should not be disturbed at all, except for important research and exclusive ceremonies. Petroforms, effigies, and other rock art can easily be unintentionally destroyed. Trails should not be made to intact and important historical sites. Rare and significant locations should not be indicated by conspicuous signs. In the Arctic it has been necessary to ask visitors to avoid confusing the archaeological record by putting up inuksuit of their own. There needs to be more education to ensure that some of these important sites are not easily found, easily misused, and potentially lost forever. Snow mobiles and all terrain vehicles can also easily disturb the rock formations. It is estimated that hundreds of formations were destroyed to clear land for agriculture. There are more petroforms to be discovered that are partially buried under soil, or covered with moss and forest.

Localities

Whiteshell Provincial Park

One of the locations of petroform sites, including effigies, is in Southeastern Manitoba, in Whiteshell Provincial Park, Canada. Whiteshell Park is named after the white cowrie shells used by some Anishinaabe peoples in ceremonies. The natural landscape of the park, with many movable rocks and boulders left behind after the last ice age, gave humans the easy opportunity to arrange them into many human made patterns. Some large boulders appear to be carved, chipped, or altered to look like turtle heads and other animals. Petroform shapes were used to guide travelers, point out the directions, for astronomy, as memory devices, and for ceremonial use. Different colours of rocks were used in some of the petroforms. Petroforms provide a way to memorize long oral stories, songs, and ideas associated with the shapes, the number of rocks, and the geometrical patterns of the rocks. Some common shapes are turtles and snakes, along with various circles.

These ancient sites are in need of protection from anyone who might accidentally or purposely move any of these ancient rocks that would destroy their astronomical alignments. Specific laws are set up to protect them from vandals, and to preserve them intact for generations to come.

The Southeastern Manitoba sites contain all the many variations of petroforms from across North America, which suggests that many of these rock art shapes originated there, in the central area of the North American continent. The Whiteshell River runs into the Winnipeg River which is the only water route for prehistoric travelers and later fur traders to canoe directly across the Canadian Shield between the large Lake Winnipeg and Lake Superior. The two rivers meet in this park and funneled prehistoric native traders from across the western prairie rivers, from the northern lakes, from south along the Red River, and from the Eastern Great Lakes. The Canadian Shield would have also been an ideal place to mine and quarry various types of rock for tools and arrow heads, and to spear or trap fish along the many rapids.

There are many unknown questions about these fascinating rock shapes that are found in the boreal forests of Manitoba, on very large, bare, flat, surfaces of the Canadian Shield granite rock ridges. The granite was made smooth and flat due to the last ice age as large glaciers passed over the ridges. A large 9-acre (36,000 m2) site exists in the Whiteshell Provincial Park and may possibly be the largest, intact petroform site in North America. This site is protected by the Province of Manitoba. There are also many other smaller sites in the park, and some sites elsewhere in Manitoba, North Dakota, Montana, Wisconsin, etc. The word "Manitoba" possibly comes from two Ojibway words meaning where the Spirit, or Manitou, sits. The locations of these petroforms are considered sacred ground by many, and the area was used for ceremonies, to pass along stories, share knowledge, and for elders to gather. One story indicates that this is the general area where the first human was lowered to the Earth. Whiteshell Park has some of the oldest granite bedrock areas on Earth that are mostly composed of a pink coloured granite, or smooth granite ridges, sometimes perfectly bare and flat, and sometimes a mix of red and grey granite. There are some very large flat areas of this pink, or red coloured, felsic granite that were excellent areas for aboriginal peoples to regularly gather in large numbers without causing a lot of muddy trails and ground. Some of the granite rock is about 3.8 billion years old. The very large flat surfaces of granite resemble a concrete city scape, which provided an ideal place for many prehistoric travelers and traders to gather very often on dry, partly open, flat, and high ground. A practical consideration is that a human made fire on this open rock cannot easily spread to a dry forest.

The Canadian Shield is an ancient bedrock of mountains that have been scraped down to smaller ridges by many ice ages. These ridges would have been excellent ancient highways to walk across a land of wetter areas, bogs, dense forests, lakes, and away from the main river canoe routes. Native peoples used the landscape in a reasonable and wise way, that allowed them to more easily move in search of food, for travel, for gatherings, for ceremonies, and for exploring. These ancient rock ridges became valuable routes that snake through the thick forests and across wet and difficult terrain. Petroforms made upon these granite ridges would have been partially a natural outcome based on the importance and use of the ridges for practical reasons and the abundance of glacial till and boulders to make the petroforms. The Whiteshell River and Winnipeg River routes were used by natives, fur traders, trappers, and were the main routes to the western prairies from the Eastern Great Lakes and rivers. The petroforms found in the Whiteshell River area are close enough to the canoe routes or river highways that native peoples needed and used.

Other very similar rock circles and medicine wheels can be found across North America, but sites elsewhere do not have the diversity of shapes and geometry that the Whiteshell Park sites have. The Whiteshell Provincial Park is named after a white shell, or the miigis shell (a cowrie shell) that was very important to many native peoples across North America and elsewhere in the world. These shells were used for ceremonies and they are found naturally from the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The shells were a part of an extensive prehistoric trading network across North America. Copper, flint, and other types of minerals were also used and traded from far away. Stories written on birch bark scrolls by the midewiwin document some of the history of Ojibway migrations and the discovery of white miigis shells along Lake Superior and elsewhere.

Turtle Mountain Provincial Park

There are areas in and around Turtle Mountain Provincial Park that have many medicine wheels and other large petroform shapes. The Turtle mountains are a hilly, rocky terrain, with many small lakes. The glacial till left behind provided plenty of rocks and boulders to pile, line up, and to make many medicine wheels and petroforms. The lack of agriculture in the area helped to protect many petroforms from destruction. The Turtle Mountains are part of the Mandan trail, and the Sioux also came through the area. The landscape features, including a long natural ridge through North Dakota, named as a serpent, were known and named by native peoples. Natural ridges, hills, and human made mounds were also used for astronomical and burial purposes. Higher areas provided an easier way to observe the horizon, sky, sun, moon, planets, and stars. In addition, higher areas were necessary to keep watch for defensive purposes, similar to old churches and castles in towns and villages.

Wisconsin

The petroform sites in Wisconsin are being studied more closely, and can be dated more easily because of soil deposits over centuries. Many other sites have no layers of soil deposited around the petroforms. Forested areas and soil cover have partially protected many of the petroforms in Wisconsin and Minnesota. In many areas across the prairies, large circular medicine wheels were made as astronomical devices, directional maps, and for ceremonial use. Some of these medicine wheels are large, and many were destroyed for agricultural needs by clearing the grasslands of any rocks. Some are intact, such as in the Turtle Mountains, and other sandy, rocky, or more remote areas that had less crop farms and settlements. Mound building was also associated in some way with petroform use. Petroforms originally predated the use of mounds and other human-made earthen works that required more time and effort. Although mound building could have originally been necessary and practical to provide some higher ground during floods. There is some speculation that larger mounds would have served as dikes and defensive fortifications, including providing higher ground to keep watch.

See also

References

  1. ^ The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map:
  2. ^ Sinai: Excavations and Studies. Ze'ev Meshel. 2000. BAR S876. ISBN 78-1-84171-077-8 ISBN 1-84171-077-6
  3. ^ The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map: Desert Kites
  4. ^ O'Hanlon, Larry (Apr 20, 2010). "Mysterious Desert Lines Were Animal Traps". Discovery News. http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/desert-lines-hunting-tool-kites.html. Retrieved 21 April 2010.

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